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Glossary

Peptide Glossary

Peptide Research Glossary

Plain-language definitions for peptide chemistry, analytical testing, receptor biology and laboratory handling, written for researchers. Terms link to our products and articles only where we have them.

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A B C D E F G H I K L M N P R S T U V

A

4 terms

Amino Acid

An organic molecule with an amino group (–NH₂), a carboxyl group (–COOH) and a variable side chain on a central carbon. Twenty standard amino acids are linked into peptides and proteins, and the side chain gives each one its chemical character.

Related:Peptide Bond Peptide Sequence

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AMPK (AMP-Activated Protein Kinase)

An enzyme that acts as a cellular energy sensor. It becomes active when the ratio of AMP to ATP rises and switches on pathways that make ATP while switching off those that use it. Metabolic research often reports AMPK phosphorylation as a readout.

Related:NAD+ / Sirtuin Pathway Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide (MDP)

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Analogue

A compound whose structure is altered from a reference molecule, for example by swapping or adding amino acids, to change a property such as stability, half-life or receptor selectivity. Many research peptides are analogues of endogenous hormones.

Related:Half-Life Receptor Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR)

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Angiogenesis

The formation of new blood vessels from existing ones. In the laboratory it is measured with endothelial cell tube-formation assays and in animal models, and it involves signals such as VEGF and nitric oxide.

Full article: BPC-157 Mechanism of Action: Reviewing Latest 2026 Tissue Repair Data

Related:Endothelial Cell VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)Nitric Oxide (NO)

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B

5 terms

Bacteriostatic Water (BAC Water)

Sterile water containing 0.9% benzyl alcohol as a preservative. The benzyl alcohol inhibits bacterial growth, so a vial can be accessed more than once. It is used as a diluent for lyophilized compounds in the laboratory.

Full article: Optimizing Peptide Stability: The Role of Benzyl Alcohol in Reconstitution

Related:Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying)Reconstitution

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BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor)

A protein of the neurotrophin family that supports the survival, growth and plasticity of neurons. Changes in BDNF expression are a common endpoint in neuropeptide research.

Full article: Semax Mechanism of Action: A 2026 Review of Neuroprotective Research

Related:Neurotrophic Factor

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Binding Affinity

How tightly a ligand binds its receptor, usually reported as the dissociation constant (Kd). A smaller Kd means tighter binding. Affinity describes binding only, not the size of the response it produces.

Related:Receptor Receptor Agonist Kd (Dissociation Constant)

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Bioavailability

The fraction of a compound that reaches the circulation in active form, which depends on the route of exposure and on how quickly the compound is degraded or cleared. Peptides are broken down by digestive and plasma enzymes, so bioavailability is a central design question.

Related:PEGylation Half-Life

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Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

A selective barrier formed by the endothelial cells of brain capillaries, supported by astrocytes and pericytes, that restricts which molecules enter brain tissue. Whether a peptide can cross it is a key question in neuropeptide research.

Related:Neuropeptide Bioavailability

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C

5 terms

C-Terminal Amide

A modification in which the free carboxyl group at the C-terminus of a peptide is converted to an amide (–CONH₂). It removes a negative charge and often makes the peptide more resistant to carboxypeptidases. Several research peptides are amidated.

Related:N-terminus / C-terminus

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cAMP (Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate)

A second messenger made by adenylyl cyclase when certain G protein-coupled receptors are activated. It relays the signal inside the cell, for example by activating protein kinase A.

Related:PKA (Protein Kinase A)GHRH Receptor (GHRH-R)Receptor

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CAS Number

A unique numeric identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service to a specific chemical substance. It lets researchers confirm they mean the same compound regardless of naming differences. The salt form and free form of one peptide can have different CAS numbers.

Related:Molecular Formula Molecular Weight (MW)

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Certificate of Analysis (COA)

A document from a testing laboratory reporting the results for a specific batch, such as HPLC purity and mass-spectrometry identity, along with a lot number and test dates. The results apply only to the sample tested.

Full article: How to Verify Peptide Purity: A Researcher’s Guide to COA Analysis

Related:HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)Purity Mass Spectrometry (MS)

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Collagen Synthesis

The production of collagen proteins by cells such as fibroblasts, from gene expression and procollagen assembly through to secretion and processing. In cell culture it is often measured as collagen protein or mRNA levels.

Full article: GHK-Cu Peptide: Copper Complex Collagen Signaling & 2026 Research

Related:Extracellular Matrix (ECM)Fibroblast

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D

4 terms

D-Amino Acid

The mirror-image form of an amino acid. Nearly all natural peptides are built from L-amino acids, so substituting a D-form can make a peptide harder for proteases to cleave and can change how it fits its receptor.

Related:Amino Acid Half-Life

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Disulfide Bridge

A covalent sulfur–sulfur bond between the side chains of two cysteine residues. It can hold a peptide in a particular folded shape and affects its stability and activity.

Related:Amino Acid Peptide Bond

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Dose-Dependent

A response whose size changes with the amount of exposure. In vitro work usually calls this concentration-dependence, and a dose-response curve plots the relationship.

Related:In Vitro In Vivo

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Double-Blind

A study design in which neither the participants nor the investigators know who is receiving which treatment, which reduces bias in how results are collected and interpreted.

Related:Placebo-Controlled Randomized

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E

4 terms

Endogenous

Produced naturally inside an organism. Endogenous peptides such as hormones and neuropeptides are the starting point for many synthetic analogues.

Related:Exogenous Analogue

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Endothelial Cell

A cell type that lines the inside of blood vessels. Endothelial cells respond to growth factors such as VEGF and are the main cell type used in angiogenesis assays.

Related:Angiogenesis Nitric Oxide (NO)VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)

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Exogenous

Originating outside the organism, such as a synthetic peptide added to a cell culture or given in an animal model, as opposed to an endogenous molecule.

Related:Endogenous

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Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

The network of proteins and sugars, including collagen, elastin and proteoglycans, that surrounds cells and gives tissues their structure. It is constantly remodeled by synthesis and by enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases.

Related:Collagen Synthesis MMP (Matrix Metalloproteinase)Fibroblast

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F

1 term

Fibroblast

A connective-tissue cell that produces collagen and other components of the extracellular matrix. Cultured fibroblasts are widely used to study matrix production and remodeling.

Related:Collagen Synthesis Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

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G

10 terms

GABAergic Signaling

Signaling that uses gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, through GABA-A and GABA-B receptors. Researchers study how neuropeptides change GABAergic gene expression and activity in cell and animal models.

Full article: Selank Mechanism: A 2026 Deep Dive into Anxiolytic Signaling

Related:Neuropeptide Receptor

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Ghrelin Receptor (GHS-R1a)

The G protein-coupled receptor activated by ghrelin and by synthetic growth hormone secretagogues. It is found in the pituitary and hypothalamus, among other tissues.

Related:Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)Receptor Agonist Somatotroph

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GHRH (Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone)

A hypothalamic peptide that stimulates growth hormone release from the pituitary by binding the GHRH receptor on somatotrophs. Synthetic GHRH analogues are used to study this pathway.

Related:Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)Pulsatile Release GHRH Receptor (GHRH-R)

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GHRH Receptor (GHRH-R)

A G protein-coupled receptor on pituitary somatotroph cells. When GHRH binds it, the receptor raises intracellular cAMP and drives growth hormone synthesis and release.

Related:GHRH (Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone)cAMP (Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate)Somatotroph

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GIP (Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide)

An incretin hormone released from the gut that acts on the GIP receptor in tissues including pancreatic islets and fat. It is one of the receptors engaged by multi-agonist research peptides.

Related:Incretin GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1)

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GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1)

An incretin hormone released after nutrient intake that acts on the GLP-1 receptor to affect insulin secretion, glucagon release and appetite signaling. Many research peptides are GLP-1 receptor agonists.

Full article: GLP-1 vs. Triple Agonists: The Evolution of Metabolic Research

Related:Incretin Receptor Agonist GIP (Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide)

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Glucagon Receptor

The G protein-coupled receptor activated by glucagon, mainly in the liver, where it influences glucose and lipid metabolism. Some multi-agonist research peptides act on this receptor alongside the GLP-1 and GIP receptors.

Related:GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1)GIP (Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide)

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Gonadotropin

Luteinizing hormone (LH) or follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), released by the pituitary to act on the gonads. Their release is driven by pulses of GnRH from the hypothalamus.

Related:HPG Axis Pulsatile Release

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GPR54 / KISS1R

The receptor for kisspeptins, encoded by KISS1R (formerly GPR54). It is found on hypothalamic GnRH neurons and is central to how the brain controls reproductive hormone release.

Related:HPG Axis Gonadotropin Receptor

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Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)

A compound that stimulates the release of growth hormone. Ghrelin-receptor agonists and GHRH analogues work through different receptors on pituitary somatotroph cells.

Full article: Ipamorelin Mechanisms: A 2026 Deep Dive into Growth Hormone Secretion

Related:GHRH (Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone)Ghrelin Receptor (GHS-R1a)Pulsatile Release

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H

4 terms

Half-Life

The time it takes for the concentration of a compound to fall by half. Native peptides often have short half-lives because enzymes degrade them quickly, so analogues are often designed to extend it.

Related:PEGylation Analogue Bioavailability

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HPG Axis

The hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis: GnRH from the hypothalamus triggers pituitary gonadotropin release, which acts on the gonads. Kisspeptin signaling sits upstream of GnRH neurons.

Related:Gonadotropin GPR54 / KISS1R

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HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)

A method that separates the components of a sample by pushing it through a packed column under pressure. Purity is usually reported as the area of the main peak as a percentage of all peaks on the chromatogram.

Full article: HPLC vs. Mass Spectrometry: Validating Peptide Purity for Research

Related:Purity Mass Spectrometry (MS)Certificate of Analysis (COA)

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hTERT (Human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase)

The catalytic subunit of human telomerase, the enzyme that adds repeats to chromosome ends. hTERT expression is a common readout in telomere biology experiments.

Related:Telomerase

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I

6 terms

IGF-1 (Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1)

A hormone made mainly in the liver in response to growth hormone. It acts on the IGF-1 receptor and is often measured as a downstream marker in growth hormone research.

Related:IGFBP (Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein)Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)

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IGFBP (Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein)

One of six proteins that bind IGF-1 in circulation, extending its half-life and regulating how much is free to act on its receptor.

Related:IGF-1 (Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1)Half-Life

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In Vitro

Latin for “in glass”: work done in cells or tissue samples in a dish or tube, outside a living organism. In vitro results do not necessarily predict what happens in a whole organism.

Related:In Vivo Preclinical Research

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In Vivo

Work done in a living organism, such as an animal model. In vivo studies capture absorption, distribution and metabolism effects that in vitro experiments cannot.

Related:In Vitro Preclinical Research

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Incretin

A gut-derived hormone, such as GLP-1 or GIP, released after eating that enhances glucose-dependent insulin secretion. Incretin receptors are a major focus of metabolic research.

Related:GLP-1 (Glucagon-Like Peptide-1)GIP (Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide)

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Isoform

One of several related forms of a protein produced from the same gene, by alternative splicing or processing, that can differ in activity or location. The kisspeptin family is an example: several lengths come from one precursor.

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K

1 term

Kd (Dissociation Constant)

The ligand concentration at which half of the receptors are occupied at equilibrium. It is the usual measure of binding affinity; a lower Kd means tighter binding.

Related:Binding Affinity Ligand

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L

2 terms

Ligand

Any molecule that binds to a receptor, including natural hormones, synthetic peptides and antagonists. A ligand may activate the receptor (agonist), block it (antagonist) or do neither.

Related:Receptor Receptor Agonist Receptor Antagonist

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Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying)

Removing water from a frozen sample under vacuum so that it dries without melting, leaving a stable powder. Most research peptides are supplied lyophilized because they are far more stable dry than in solution.

Related:Reconstitution Bacteriostatic Water (BAC Water)

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M

5 terms

Mass Spectrometry (MS)

A technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions to determine a molecule's mass. For peptides it confirms identity by matching the measured molecular weight to the expected value.

Full article: Understanding Peptide Purity: Mass Spectrometry in Research Protocols

Related:HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)Molecular Weight (MW)Certificate of Analysis (COA)

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Mitochondrial-Derived Peptide (MDP)

A short peptide encoded within mitochondrial DNA, such as humanin and MOTS-c, that appears to act as a signal between mitochondria and the rest of the cell. They are an active area of metabolic and aging research.

Related:AMPK (AMP-Activated Protein Kinase)

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MMP (Matrix Metalloproteinase)

One of a family of zinc-dependent enzymes that break down components of the extracellular matrix. MMP activity is balanced by tissue inhibitors and is measured in studies of matrix remodeling.

Related:Extracellular Matrix (ECM)Collagen Synthesis

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Molecular Formula

A notation listing how many atoms of each element are in one molecule. For peptides it is used to calculate the molecular weight that mass spectrometry should find.

Related:Molecular Weight (MW)CAS Number

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Molecular Weight (MW)

The mass of one mole of a compound, in g/mol (daltons). It is used to convert between mass and moles, and mass-spectrometry results are checked against it. It differs between a free peptide and its salt forms.

Related:Mass Spectrometry (MS)Molecular Formula Trifluoroacetate / Acetate Salt

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N

5 terms

N-terminus / C-terminus

The two ends of a peptide chain. The N-terminus carries a free amino group and the C-terminus a free carboxyl group (unless modified), and by convention sequences are written from N to C.

Related:Amino Acid Peptide Bond C-Terminal Amide

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NAD+ / Sirtuin Pathway

NAD+ is a coenzyme in cellular redox reactions and a required substrate for sirtuins, a family of deacylase enzymes. Research examines how NAD+ availability affects sirtuin activity and energy metabolism.

Related:AMPK (AMP-Activated Protein Kinase)

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Neuropeptide

A peptide that neurons use to communicate, often acting as a neuromodulator on G protein-coupled receptors. Neuropeptide research covers how these signals shape circuit activity and behavior in models.

Related:Receptor Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB)

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Neurotrophic Factor

A secreted protein that supports the survival, growth and maintenance of neurons. BDNF is the best-known example.

Related:BDNF (Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor)

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Nitric Oxide (NO)

A short-lived gas that acts as a signaling molecule and is made by nitric oxide synthases. In endothelial cells it relaxes vessels and takes part in angiogenic signaling.

Related:Angiogenesis Endothelial Cell PI3K/Akt Pathway

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P

10 terms

PEGylation

Attaching polyethylene glycol chains to a molecule to make it larger. This can slow clearance and protect it from enzymes, extending half-life.

Related:Half-Life Analogue

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Peptide

A chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds, generally shorter than about 50 residues; longer chains are called proteins. Peptides act as hormones, neurotransmitters and signaling molecules.

Related:Amino Acid Peptide Bond

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Peptide Bond

The amide bond that links the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of the next, releasing water. Repeating peptide bonds form the backbone of every peptide and protein.

Related:Amino Acid Peptide

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PI3K/Akt Pathway

A signaling cascade in which PI3K activates the kinase Akt to influence cell survival, growth and metabolism. It sits downstream of many growth-factor receptors, including those for IGF-1 and VEGF.

Related:IGF-1 (Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1)VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)Nitric Oxide (NO)

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PKA (Protein Kinase A)

A kinase activated by cAMP that phosphorylates target proteins, carrying signals from receptors such as the GHRH receptor to changes in cell behavior.

Related:cAMP (Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate)

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Placebo-Controlled

A study in which one group receives an inactive substance so that the effects of the real treatment can be separated from expectation and chance.

Related:Double-Blind Randomized

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Preclinical Research

Laboratory and animal work done before any testing in people, covering in vitro and in vivo studies. Findings are hypothesis-generating and do not establish safety or efficacy in humans.

Related:In Vitro In Vivo

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Primary Endpoint

The main outcome a study is designed to measure, and the one its sample size is based on. Secondary endpoints are additional measurements.

Related:Placebo-Controlled Randomized

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Pulsatile Release

Secretion in discrete bursts rather than at a steady rate, as with growth hormone and GnRH. The size and timing of pulses can matter as much as the total amount released.

Full article: CJC-1295 Mechanism: A 2026 Deep Dive into GH Pulsatility

Related:Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)GHRH (Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone)

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Purity

The proportion of a sample that is the target compound. For peptides it is usually reported by HPLC as the main peak's area as a percentage of the total peak area, so it does not measure peptide content (the amount of peptide versus water and counter-ions).

Full article: Peptide Purity Standards: A 2026 Guide to COA and HPLC Analysis

Related:HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)Certificate of Analysis (COA)

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R

6 terms

Randomized

Participants (or samples) are assigned to groups by chance, which spreads known and unknown differences evenly and reduces bias.

Related:Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled

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Receptor

A protein, on the cell surface or inside the cell, that binds a specific signaling molecule and triggers a response. Peptide hormones mostly act on G protein-coupled receptors.

Related:Receptor Agonist Receptor Antagonist Ligand

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Receptor Agonist

A ligand that binds a receptor and activates it. Full agonists produce the maximal response and partial agonists a smaller one.

Related:Receptor Antagonist Receptor Binding Affinity

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Receptor Antagonist

A ligand that binds a receptor without activating it and blocks the receptor from being activated by an agonist.

Related:Receptor Agonist Receptor

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Recombinant

Made by inserting a gene into a host cell, such as bacteria or yeast, so that it produces the protein. Longer proteins are usually made this way; short peptides are usually made by chemical synthesis.

Related:Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS)

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Reconstitution

Dissolving a lyophilized powder in a liquid so it can be used in the laboratory. The diluent, vial handling and storage afterward all affect stability.

Related:Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying)Bacteriostatic Water (BAC Water)

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S

5 terms

Sequence

The order of amino acids in a peptide, written from the N-terminus to the C-terminus using one- or three-letter codes. The sequence determines the molecule's identity and properties.

Related:Amino Acid N-terminus / C-terminus

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Solid-Phase Peptide Synthesis (SPPS)

The standard method for making peptides chemically, building the chain one amino acid at a time on an insoluble resin. When the chain is complete it is cleaved from the resin and then purified, typically by HPLC.

Related:Purity HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)

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Solubility

How much of a compound dissolves in a given solvent. Peptide solubility depends on sequence, charge and the solvent or pH.

Related:Reconstitution

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Somatotroph

The pituitary cell type that makes and releases growth hormone. It carries both GHRH receptors and ghrelin receptors.

Related:Ghrelin Receptor (GHS-R1a)GHRH Receptor (GHRH-R)

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Structure-Activity Relationship (SAR)

The relationship between a molecule's structure and its biological activity. Researchers change one part of a peptide at a time and measure the effect on binding or function.

Related:Analogue Binding Affinity

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T

3 terms

Tachyphylaxis

A rapid decrease in response to repeated stimulation of the same receptor, often through desensitization or depletion. It is studied in work on secretagogues and other receptor agonists.

Related:Growth Hormone Secretagogue (GHS)

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Telomerase

An enzyme that adds repeats to the ends of chromosomes (telomeres), counteracting their shortening with each cell division. Most somatic cells have little activity, and telomerase is studied in cell-aging and cell-culture research.

Full article: Epitalon Mechanism of Action: 2026 Research on Telomere Regulation

Related:hTERT (Human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase)

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Trifluoroacetate / Acetate Salt

Counter-ion forms in which a peptide is supplied. TFA salts result from standard purification, and acetate salts are another common form. The salt adds weight, so the peptide content of a vial is lower than its total mass.

Related:Molecular Weight (MW)Purity

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U

1 term

UPLC (Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography)

HPLC run with smaller particles at higher pressure, giving faster runs and sharper peaks. It is often paired with mass spectrometry (LC-MS).

Related:HPLC (High-Performance Liquid Chromatography)Mass Spectrometry (MS)

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V

3 terms

VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)

A signaling protein that drives endothelial cell growth, migration and new vessel formation by binding VEGF receptors.

Related:Angiogenesis Endothelial Cell VEGFR2 (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2)

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VEGFR2 (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Receptor 2)

The main receptor through which VEGF promotes endothelial cell proliferation and survival.

Related:VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor)PI3K/Akt Pathway

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Vial

A small sealed glass container used to hold laboratory compounds. The label should carry the compound name, amount and lot number, so the vial can be matched to its certificate of analysis.

Related:Lyophilization (Freeze-Drying)Reconstitution Certificate of Analysis (COA)

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